IT 116: Introduction to Scripting

IT 116: Introduction to Scripting
Class 22

Microphone

Questions

Are there any questions before I begin?

Homework 10

I have posted homework 10 here.

It is due this coming Sunday at 11:59 PM.

Readings

If you have the textbook you should read Chapter 7, Lists and Tuples, from Starting Out with Python.

Graded Quiz 8

You can connect to Gradescope to take weekly graded quiz today during the last 15 minutes of the class.

Once you start the quiz you have 15 minutes to finish it.

Tips and Examples

All Scripts Must Be Executable

Many of you have forgotten to make your scripts executable
If you forget to do this you will lose points on assignments
There are two things you have to do to make a script executable
- Give the script read and execute permissions
- Write the hashbang line on the very first line of the script
You can change the permissions in FileZilla
Once you have transfered the file to pe15.cs.umb.edu ...
right click on the file to bring up a menu ...
and enter 755 in the Permissions box
You can also do this on the Unix command line like this
```
chmod 755 FILENAME
```
The hashbang line must be the very first line in the script
It should be
```
#! /usr/bin/python3
```

Review

The Code in the `try` Clause

A call to open must always be put inside the try block ...
of a try/except statement
But if the rest of your code needs the file object to function properly ...
it must be but in a place wher it will not run if an exception occurs
The code below does not do this ...

and we get a runtime error

filename = input("Filename: ")
try:
    file = open(filename, "r")
except:
    print("Cannot open", filename)

count = 0
total = 0

for line in file:
    count += 1
    date, temp = line.split()
    temp   = int(temp)
    total += temp

average = round(total/count, 2)
print("Average:", average)


$ ./temps_average_3.py 
Filename: xxx
Cannot open xxx
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "./temps_average_3.py", line 15, in <module>
    for line in file:
NameError: name 'file' is not defined

There is more than one way to deal with this issue
One way is to put all the code that needs the file object ...
inside the try block

Different Exception Types

A runtime error makes the interpreter create an exception object
When this happens the interpreter is said to raise an exception
The exception mechanism has three purposes
- To allow the interpreter to handle the runtime error
- To give the programmer some idea of what went wrong
- To give the programmer the chance to do something about it
There is more than one way to cause a runtime error
So different exception objects are created for different runtime errors

Common Exception Types

When you try to open a file that does not exists ...

the interpreter creates FileNotFoundError exception object

>>> open("xxx.txt","r")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'xxx.txt'

If you try to open a file for which you do not have permission ...

a PermissionError object will be created

file = open("test.txt","r")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
PermissionError: [Errno 13] Permission denied: 'test.txt'

If a conversion function gets an argument of the wrong data type ...

a TypeError object is created

>>> round("foo")
Number: foo
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: type str doesn't define __round__ method

If you give a function a value it can't handle ...

a ValueError object is created

>>> number = float(input("Number: "))
Number: 5..4
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: could not convert string to float: '5..4'

If you try to divide by zero ...

the interpreter will create a ZeroDivisionError exception object

>>> print(5/0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Handling More Than One Type of Exception

You can have many except clauses in a try/except statement
One for each exception type

The format is

try:
    STATEMENT
    ...
except EXCEPTION_TYPE_1:
    STATEMENT
    ...
except EXCEPTION_TYPE_2:
    STATEMENT
    ...
...

You can catch as many exception types as you want

This format can be used to create an improved version of open_file_read

def open_file_read():
    while True:
        filename = input("Filename: ")
        try:
            file = open(filename, "r")
            return file
        except FileNotFoundError:
            print("Cannot find", filename)
        except PermissionError:
            print("You do not have permission to read", filename)

The `else` Clause

A try/except statement can also have an else clause
Code in an else block runs if there is no runtime error
Only put code that can cause a runtime error in the try block
Put any code that depends on the try block statements working properly ...

in an else block

try:
    file = open(filename, "r")
except:
    print("Cannot open", filename)
else:
    count = 0
    total = 0
    for line in file:
        count += 1
        date, temp = line.split()
        temp   = int(temp)
        total += temp

    average = round(total/count, 2)
    print("Average:", average)

The `finally` Clause

There is another type of clause that can occur a try/except statement
It has the format
```
finally:
    STATEMENT
    ....
```
The statements in a finally clause will always be executed
It does not matter whether a runtime error occurs
We will not have to use this feature of Python
But in more advanced scripts it can be useful
The finally clause allows you to clean up any lose ends ...
no matter what happens when the script is run

Attendance

New Material

Working with Collections of Data

A variable holds one piece of information
For simple tasks, that's all we need
But for many tasks we need to work with collections of data
For example, a list of all the students in a class
Or all the scores on a quiz
To work with data like this we need data types ...
that can hold many pieces of information

Sequences

Python has a class of data types called sequences
Sequences can hold multiple values ...
stored one right after the other in RAM ...
Like this

The values are stored in particular order
Today I will discuss two sequence data types
- lists
- tuples
Lists are sequences whose values can be changed
Tuples are sequences that cannot be changed
A list or tuple is an object
This means they have methods
Methods are functions that work on the values in an object

Lists

Lists can hold many values ...
in a specific order
The values are called elements
They are stored in RAM one right after the other
You can change any value in the list
You can also change their order ...
and add and remove items from the list
A list literal is written using square brackets
Inside the the brackets are different values

Separated by commas

>>> even_numbers = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
>>> even_numbers
[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

Here is what this looks like in memory

even_numbers is a variable ...
that contains the address of the list object
You can say it points to the list object

Lists can contain strings

>>> courses = ["IT 244", "IT 341", "IT 116"]
>>> courses
['IT 244', 'IT 341', 'IT 116']

They can hold float values

>>> expenses = [37.55, 21.25, 32.00]
>>> expenses
[37.55, 21.25, 32.0]

They can hold boolean values

>>> results = [True, False, True]
>>>results
[True, False, True]

They can also hold values of different types

>>> python_class = ["IT 116", 32, "McCormack 2-621"]
>>> python_class

You can even have lists of lists

>>> lists = [ numbers, results, expenses]
>>>  lists
[[5, 8, 2, 9, 7, 6, 3], [True, False, True], [37.55, 21.25, 32.0]]

The `list` Function

List literals are only one way to create lists
Another way is to use the built-in function list
list is a conversion function just like int and str
list turns objects that are collections of values into a list
It turns out that strings are also sequences
A string is a collection of characters one right after the other

So we can use list on strings

>>> name = "Glenn"
>>> characters = list(name)
>>> characters
['G', 'l', 'e, 'n', 'n']

Why is there a separate data type for strings?
Because string objects have methods that only work on characters
```
>>> name.upper()
'GLENN'
>>> name.lower()
'glenn'
```

Using a `for` Loop with Lists

for loops will work with any sequence object

Like a list

>>> numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> for n in numbers:
...   print(n)
...
1
2
3
4
5

When we use a loop to work with each value in a sequence
We are said to iterate over that sequence

We can also use a for loop with strings

>>> team = "Red Sox"
>>> for char in team:
...     print(char)
... 
R
e
d
 
S
o
x
>>>

Because strings are sequences

Empty Lists

What if we wanted to build a list from scratch?
We would need to start with an empty list
Then we could add elements to this list
You create an empty list by writing a list literal ...
with nothing between the square brackets
```
>>> new_list = []
>>> new_list
[]
```
The empty list serves the same purpose that zero does for numbers
If you add any number to zero
You get the number you added
If you add an element to an empty list
You get a list with only that element

The `len` Function

The built-in function len will return the length of any sequence

>>> even_numbers = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
>>> len(even_numbers)
5
>>> len("foo")
3

The min and max Functions

The two built-in functions min and max ...
can also be used with lists
They do not change the list
But they return information about it
min returns the smallest value in a list
```
>>> l6
[1, 4, 5, 6]
>>> min(l6)
1
```
max returns the largest
```
max(l6)
6
```
But minand max only work on lists ...
where all the elements can be ordered

They won't work on lists like this

>>>  l1 = [1, "one", 2, "two", 3, "three"]
>>>  max(l1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'
>>> max(l1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: '>' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'

Creating Lists from Files

In previous scripts we sometimes had to read through a file twice
We did this when we found the number of days with temperatures above average
We had to read through the file once to calculate the average
Then read through it again to find the days above average
Operations with files are much slower than operators in RAM
So reading a file twice is very inefficient
It turns out we don't have to do this
We can read in a file once, storing the lines in a list
The list is stored in RAM so working with it is very fast
To create a list from a file we first create an empty list
Then we read through the file adding each line to the list
Lists are objects
So they have methods that can operate on their values
We can add something to a list by using the append method
append adds it's argument to the end of the list

Here is a script that creates a list from a file

file  = open("numbs.txt","r")
numbs = []
for line in file:
    num = int(line)
    numbs.append(num)
print(numbs)

Running this script I get

$ ./list_from_file.py 
[46, 19, 35, 43, 35, 33, 42]

Honesty and Trust