Review

• Objects and Classes
• Classes Are Used by Other Programs
• Defining a Class
• The Constructor Is Special
• Creating An Object from A Class
• The self Variable
• Data Hiding
• The __str__ Method
• Accessor and Mutator Methods
• Storing Objects for Future Use
• Import Statements and Global Variables
• Magic Methods
• Magic Methods and Boolean Operators
• Type Conversion Magic Methods
• Recursive Functions
• Writing Recursive Functions
• Calculating the Factorial of a Number
• Replacing Recursion with a Loop
• Direct versus Indirect Recursion

Final Exam

The final exam will be held on Thursday, December 19th from 3 to 6 PM.

The exam will be given in this room.

If for some reason you are not able to take the Final at the time it will be offered, you MUST send an email to me before the exam so we can make alternative arrangements.

The final will consist of questions taken from the Graded Quizzes, along with questions asking you to write short segments of Python code.

60% of the points on this exam will consist of questions from the Graded Quizzes.

You do not need to study a Class Quiz question if the topic is not mentioned in either the Midterm or Final review.

The remaining 40% will come from 4 questions that ask you to write some code.

To study for the code questions you should know

• How to write a regular expression
• How to use the os and sys modules
• How to write a class definition
• How to write a recursive function

A good way to study for the code questions is to review the Class Exercises, homework solutions and Class Notes.

Today's class will be a review session.

You will only be responsible for the material in today's Class Notes and the review for the Midterm, which you will find here.

Although the time alloted for the exam is 3 hours, I would expect that most of you would not need that much time.

The final is a closed book exam.

To prevent cheating, certain rules will be enforced during the exam.

Course Evaluation

At the end of each semester we offer you the opportunity to say what you think about this course.

What have I done right?

What have I done wrong?

What can I do better?

You are not asked for you name.

So the submissions are anonymous.

I will not see your responses until after I have submitted grades for this course.

We collect this feedback through Course Evaluations.

I will use what you say to make this course better.

To complete the course evaluation, use the following link .

You have until Friday, May 24th, to submit the evaluation.

No Class Next Week

A normal semester has 28 classes.

But this semester has 29.

I do not have materials for a 29th class.

Next Tuesday I will have Zoom Office Hours, from 9 AM to 5 PM, instead of a class.

The Zoom session will be conducted from my home in Somerville.

Not my office on the UMB campus.

Questions

Are there any questions before I begin?

Attendance

Review

Objects and Classes

• Objects are chunks of RAM that can hold more than one value
• These values are called attributes
• Objects contain functions that work on the attributes called methods
• Objects do not have names
• Instead they have a location in RAM
• When you create an object you store this location in a variable
• You then use dot notation on this object to call its methods
• A class defines an object
• The class serves as a template from which objects are created
• An object created from a class is an instance of that class
• Some classes, like strings, are built into the Python interpreter
• But you can create your own classes

Classes Are Used by Other Programs

• Classes are usually contained in modules
• In other words, in separate files
• To use a class you have to import it
• In this class we will create module files in the same directory as the script
• The modules can be put in other directories
• But then we would have to change the PYTHONPATH system variables
• The script that uses a class is often called the client program

Defining a Class

• The general format for a class is

  class CLASS_NAME:
      def __init__(self[, PARAMETER, ...]):
          ...
  
      def METHOD_NAME(self[, PARAMETER, ...]):
          ...

• By convention, all class names in Python are Capitalized
• A class definition consists of a number of methods
• One of which has the special name __init__
• This method is a constructor, which is used to create the object

The Constructor Is Special

• A constructor is a special method that creates an object ...
• and returns a pointer to the object
• It has no return statement
• Every time you create a class you should have a constructor

Creating An Object from A Class

• __init__ cannot be called directly
• Instead you use the name of the class
• The general format is

  OBJECT_VARIABLE = CLASS_NAME([PARAMETER, ...])

• In a previous class, we created an object like this

  date = Date(date_string)

• The variable date points to the Date object ...
• which was created by the call to the constructor
• We can then use dot notation to access the object's methods
• Like this

  print(date.format_date())

The self Variable

• Every method defined in a class has self as a parameter
• We only use self inside the class ...
• when we need to call a method ...
• or refer to variables of the class
• We cannot use self outside the class
• self represents the individual object created by the constructor
• When I call the Date constructor to create a date object

  >>> date= Date("2015-10-03")

• This object is an instance of the Date class
• The object pointed to by date has its own local variables
• These variables are called attributes
• The year attribute in date_1 has the value 2015
• We need to use the variable pointing to an object ...
• to work with that object
• We do this using dot notation
• We can use this notation to access a method

  >>> date.date()
  'October 3, 2015'

• Or an attribute

  >>> date.year
  2015

• Inside a class, the variable that points to the object is self
• We use dot notation with self to call a method

  self.format_date()

• Or use an attribute

  self.year

Data Hiding

• By default the client program can change the attributes of an object directly
• Like this

  >>> from time_1 import Time
  >>> t1 = Time("14:35:12")
  >>> t1.seconds
  12
  >>> t1.seconds = 5000000000
  >>> t1.seconds
  5000000000

• This is a bad idea
• Because the attribute might need to be restricted ...
• to a certain range of values
• To prevent this we need to make the attributes invisible outside the class
• This is called data hiding
• To do this in Python we change the name of attributes
• So they start with two underscore characters, __
• You can also hide methods the same way

The __str__ Method

• Classes can have certain methods whose names begin and end with __
• These methods are sometime called magic methods
• They are special because they are never called directly
• __init__ is an example of a magic method
• The client code calls __init__ using the name of the class

  t1  = Time("09:45:00")

• __str__ is another magic method
• It is called whenever you need a string representing an object
• Like when you print it

  print(t1)

• If Time had no __str__ method and we tried to print it ...
• here is what we would get

  >>> from time_3 import Time
  >>> t = Time("09:30:00")
  >>> print(t)
  <time_3.Time object at 0x1013e8358>

• The __str__ method must return a string
• Like this

      # returns a string formated as follows
      # H[H] hours M[M] minutes S[S] seconds
      def __str__(seconds):
          hours = seconds // (60 * 60)
          remainder = seconds % (60 * 60)
          minutes = remainder // 60
          seconds = remainder % 60
          return str(hours) + " hours " + str(minutes)+ " minutes " + str(seconds) + " seconds

Accessor and Mutator Methods

• A well designed class hides its attributes
• But the client code sometimes needs to see those values
• So you need to create special methods called accessors
• Since it is common practice for the name of an accessor to begin with "get" ...
• another name for an accessor is a getter
• Let's say you need to keep track of each computer in an office
• You would need to record the following information about each machine
  • Manufacturer
  • Model
  • Serial number
  • Processor
  • RAM
  • Hostname
  • Disk size
• The first thing we need to do is create a constructor

  def __init__(self, manufacturer, model, serial_number, processor, ram, hostname, disk_size):
      self.__manufacturer  = manufacturer
      self.__model         = model
      self.__serial_number = serial_number
      self.__processor     = processor
      self.__ram           = ram
      self.__hostname      = hostname
      self.__disk_size     = disk_size

• All the attributes are hidden ...
• so we need to create accessor for each

  def get_manufacturer(self):
      return self.__manufacturer
  
  def get_model(self):
      return self.__model
  
  def get_serial_number(self):
      return self.__serial_number
  
  def get_processor(self):
      return self.__processor
  
  def get_processor(self):
      return self.__processor
  
  def get_ram(self):
      return self.__ram
  
  def get_hostname(self):
      return self.__hostname
  
  def get_disk_size(self):
      return self.__disk_size

• The values of the following attributes should never change
  • __manufacturer
  • __model
  • __serial_number
  • __processor
• That is one of the reasons we hide attributes
• But some attributes could change with time
  • __ram
  • __hostname
  • __disk_size
• We need special methods to change these values
• Such methods are called mutators
• Since the common practice is to start a mutator name with "set" ...
• mutators are sometimes called setters
• Here are the mutators for the Computer class

  def set_ram(self, ram):
      self.__ram = ram
  
  def set_hostname(self, hostname):
      self.__hostname = hostname
  
  def set_disk_size(self, disk_size):
      self.__disk_size = disk_siz

Storing Objects for Future Use

• Most computer languages allow you to store an object on disk
• This process is called serializing
• Python calls this process pickling
• Every Python installation comes with a standard module named pickle
• This module contains functions used to serialize an object
• First you must import the pickle module

  import pickle

• To open a file for writing binary data we must use the wb access mode

  pickle_file = open(pickle_filename, "wb")

• To write an object to disk we use the dump function

  pickle.dump(students, pickle_file)

• Loading an object from a data file is a similar process
• First we open the file for binary reading

  pickle_file = open(pickle_filename, "rb")

• Then we read the previously stored object using the load function

  students = pickle.load(pickle_file)

Import Statements and Global Variables

• Sometimes a class defined in a module needs to import other modules
• These import statements need to be at the top of the file
• But they need to be outside the class definition

  from student import Student
  import pickle
  
  class Section:
  ...

• Global variables also need to be declared at the top of the file
• Again they must be outside the class definition

Magic Methods

• We can do things with numbers that do not involve using a method
• We can write expressions using operators like

  x += 7
  y = x + 8
  x > y

• When we create objects we create methods that act on them
• The Time class has a difference method ...
• that gives the difference between two Time objects
• So if t1 and t2 are Time objects I can get the time between them like this

  diff = t1.difference(t2)

• But wouldn't it be better to be able to write

  diff = t1 - t2

• We can if we create a magic method for subtraction
• For every arithmetic operator
• there is an equivalent magic method

  Operator	Magic Method
  +	__add__(self, other)
  -	__sub__(self, other)
  *	__mul__(self, other)
  //	__floordiv__(self, other)
  /	__div__(self, other)
  %	__mod__(self, other)
  **	__pow__(self, other)

• To get the difference between two Time objects using - ...
• all we have to do is change the name of the difference method ...
• to __sub__

  # returns the difference in seconds between two times
  def __sub__(self, other_time):
      return self.__seconds - other_time.__seconds

• Now we can simply use the subtraction operator,   -
• To tell the difference in seconds between two Time objects

  >>> t1 = Time("10:45:10")
  >>> t2 = Time("10:50:00")
  >>> t2 - t1
  290
  

Magic Methods and Boolean Operators

• Boolean operators are used to compare two things
• We can use magic methods to implement the boolean operators ...
• for any class we create
• Here they are

  Operator	Magic Method
  ==	__eq__(self, other)
  !=	__ne__(self, other)
  <	__lt__(self, other)
  >	__gt__(self, other)
  <=	__le__(self, other)
  >=	__ge__(self, other)

• Implementing these magic methods is straightforward

  def __eq__(self, other):
      return self.__seconds == other.__seconds
  
  def __ne__(self, other):
      return self.__seconds != other.__seconds
  
  def __lt__(self, other):
      return self.__seconds < other.__seconds
  
  def __gt__(self, other):
      return self.__seconds > other.__seconds
  
  def __le__(self, other):
      return self.__seconds <= other.__seconds
  
  def __ge__(self,other):
      return self.__seconds >= other.__seconds

• And they work as you would expect

  >>> t1 = Time("10:45:10")
  >>> t2 = Time("10:50:00")
  >>> t3 = Time("10:50:00")
  >>> t1 == t2
  False
  t2 == t3
  True
  >>> t1 < t2
  True
  >>> t1 > t2
  False
  >>> t1 <= t2
  True
  >>> t2 <= t3
  True
  >>> t1 >= t2
  False
  >>> t2 >= t3
  True

Type Conversion Magic Methods

• You can change the data type of a value ...
• by using one of Python's conversion functions
  • int
  • float
  • bool
  • str
• We can use these functions on an object variable of a class ...
• if we implement the appropriate magic method

  Operator	Magic Method
  int	__int__(self)
  float	__float__(self)
  bool	__bool__(self)
  str	__str__(self)

• We have already implemented __str__
• How we implement each of the other magic methods is up to us
• Since the __seconds attribute already stores an integer
• The simplest way to implement __int__ is just to return that value

  def __int__(self):
      return self.__seconds

• To turn an integer into a float we multiply by 1.0

  def __float__(self):
      return self.__seconds * 1.0

• But what about __bool__?
• In Python, any integer that is not zero is True

  >>> bool(0)
  False
  >>> bool(5)
  True
  >>> bool(-5)
  True

• So let's do the same for our __bool__ method

  def __bool__(self):
      return self.__seconds != 0

• Here is how they work

  >>> t1 = Time("10:15:00")
  >>> t2 = Time("00:00:00")
  >>> str(t1)
  '10:15:0 AM'
  >>> bool(t1)
  True
  >>> bool(t2)
  False
  >>> int(t1)
  36900
  >>> int(t2)
  0
  >>> float(t1)
  36900.0

• You will find the code for the latest version of the Time class here

Recursive Functions

• The body of a function consists of statements
• A function call is a statement
• So a function can call another function
• It can even call itself
• A function that calls itself is a recursive function

Writing Recursive Functions

• The trick in writing recursive functions
• Is to make sure the code will not go on forever
• Something in the code must make it stop eventually
• Here is a recursive function that counts down from some number

  def count_down(num):
      print(num)
      if num > 1:
          count_down(num - 1)

• The function will only call itself ...
• if num is greater than 1
• And each time the function calls itself num decreases by 1
• This prevents the function from running forever
• Here is what we get when we call the function
• With an argument of 10

  10
  9
  8
  7
  6
  5
  4
  3
  2
  1
  

Calculating the Factorial of a Number

• To make sure that recursion comes to an end ...
• you must have two things
  • Code that that makes the recursion stop
  • Code that works toward this end condition
• The condition that causes the program to end is called the base case
• The factorial of n is written as

  n!

• It is defined as product of multiplying all number from 1 ...
• up to n
• The formula for factorial is

  n! = (n-1)! * n

• The factorial of 1 has a different value

  1! = 1

• This is the base case
• Here is a recursive function to calculate the factorial

  def factorial(num):
      if num == 1:
          return 1
      else:
          return factorial(num -1) * num

• Calling this function I get

  >>> print("5!:",factorial(5))
  5!: 120

Replacing Recursion with a Loop

• Anything that can be done with recursion ...
• can also be done with a loop
• Recursive functions take more memory than loops
• Each time you make a recursive call ...
• the interpreter sets aside a bit of memory for that call ...
• which is only released when the function ends
• So why use recursion at all?
• Because it can save time when writing code
• It is often easier to create a recursive algorithm ...
• than one that uses a loop
• Memory is relatively cheap
• And good programmers are expensive
• So it's often best to go with recursion

Direct versus Indirect Recursion

• Recursion is where a function calls itself
• The functions above call themselves directly
• This is called direct recursion
• But you can also have indirect recursion
• In indirect recursion a function calls another function ...
• and that other function calls the original function
• So if function A called function B ...
• and function B called function A ...
• that would be an example of indirect recursion
• The can be any number of functions involved in indirect recursion
• So function A can call function B
• Which calls function C
• Which calls function D
• Which calls function A